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Gender equality refers to equality between women and men with respect to their rights, treatment, responsibilities, opportunities, and economic and social achievements. Gender equality is achieved when men and women have the same rights, responsibilities and opportunities across all sections of society and when the different interests, needs and priorities of men and women are equally valued.
Based on Eurofound's work on this topic, a number of policy pointers can be suggested.
Two out of three net new jobs in the EU over the last two decades have been taken up by women. While the gender employment gap has narrowed in recent decades, women continue to participate less than men in the labour market.
The gender pay gap means that women, on average, earn 14.1% less per hour than men. The pay gap has reduced in around two-thirds of Member States.
Eurofound adopts a gender mainstreaming approach systematically in its research. Where possible and relevant, research findings, including surveys and policy analyses, disaggregate data by gender. Other research projects provide specific analysis relevant to gender equality. The research covers a wider variety of topics from a gender perspective, such as pay and income, minimum wage, care, employment participation, leave, skills and training, work organisation, job quality, working time, work–life balance and social cohesion and convergence, including in pan-European surveys and regular reporting at national level.
Listen to or watch our video on Gender disparities in the workplace with insights from Eurofound expert Barbara Gerstenberger.
The COVID-19 pandemic risks rolling back years of progress on gender equality. Eurofound’s Living and Working in the EU e-survey offers an insight into the impact of the pandemic on the lives of EU citizens. Conducted in various rounds since 2020, it allows for comparison of the challenges that arose during the different stages of living through the pandemic. Findings show that COVID-19 has impacted gender equality at home. The pandemic has significantly increased the number of teleworkers in Europe, and women were more likely to work from home during the pandemic than men. Furthermore, the closure of schools and childcare facilities during confinement disproportionately impacted women, who generally assumed greater domestic and care responsibilities.
The findings also reveal a general deterioration of work–life balance among workers in the EU with more women and men reporting work–life conflicts, but women who have to telework and care for small children appear to have struggled most. Women have also reported greater financial strain than men during the pandemic. The e-survey questionnaire drew on questions used in Eurofound’s pan-European surveys, the European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) and the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS).
Eurofound's EU PolicyWatch database collates and maps the national-level policy responses across Europe to the COVID-19 crisis, the war in Ukraine and rising inflation. Some of these measures have a gender dimension.
Eurofound research explores the characteristics and consequences of gender gaps in labour market participation, as well as policies and measures aimed at fostering female labour market participation. Women’s employment and participation rates are still lower than those of men in almost all EU Member States. Eurofound has estimated the annual cost of this gender employment gap in the EU at more than €390 billion in 2023, corresponding to 2.3% of the EU’s GDP. Research also looks at upward convergence in the gender employment gap, assessing which are the best and worst-performing Member States in this regard.
The European Jobs Monitor (EJM) tracks structural change in European labour markets in terms of occupation and sector, giving a qualitative assessment of these shifts using various proxies of job quality. This monitoring includes analysis of patterns of employment change by gender and by job-wage quintile, as well as labour market segregation.
Eurofound research covers a range of topics linking wages and gender, such as variable pay, performance-related pay, low pay and the gender pay gap. Survey research looks at earnings as one of seven indicators of job quality for men and women at work. On minimum wages, an annual review monitors the level of minimum wages across Europe, also measuring coverage rates of workers by gender in 2019 and the link with the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the EJM looks at the extent to which different jobs, occupations and sectors contribute to the gender pay gap. This is useful for the interpretation of the Commission’s social scoreboard’s indicator on the gender pay gap and for the implementation of the gender-equality principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights.
Eurofound reviewed the first experiences of countries with gender pay transparency measures in 2018. At the Commission’s request, Eurofound has initiated an ad hoc study on measures to promote gender pay transparency in companies, looking at how much they cost and whether companies can see any opportunities. This will feed into the Commission’s impact assessment.
Eurofound’s European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers a range of aspects of working conditions from a gender perspective. In recent questionnaires, gender mainstreaming has been an important topic. The survey monitors occupational, sectoral, time and pay gaps, as well as working time patterns, work–life balance, violence and harassment at work, and health and well-being, including what all this means for sustainable work. The European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS) 2021 analysed the multiple dimensions of job quality, comparing the situation in the Member States also by gender.
EWCS analysis helps to inform policies aimed at closing gender gaps in the area of job and employment quality. The knowledge provided is relevant for the principle of gender equality and initiatives to improve work–life balance, as well as those included in the context of the European Pillar of Social Rights and implementation of the European Gender Equality Strategy.
Research also looks at the experience of women in management roles and how their underrepresentation in management can be addressed. It analyses the job quality of both male and female managers, and the impact a management job has on personal life.
Other research analyses the level of female entrepreneurship in Europe and the market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. It examines the financial hurdles facing female entrepreneurs and the use of private or public funds to invest in this group. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs.
The higher participation of women in the labour market has prompted changes in the way European social partner organisations tackle gender issues. Research has also assessed the role of the EU social partners in advancing gender equality, exploring actions taken within the different national frameworks of industrial relations and against the ranking of Member States on EIGE’s Gender Equality Index.
Moreover, Eurofound has worked on a joint project with the International Labour Organization (ILO) to look at working conditions in a global perspective. It expands on gender gaps across the world (1.2 billion workers) and provides evidence on the gendered differences in job quality and on higher risk of women to be exposed to sexual violence; the latter is also identified in EWCS 2015.
The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) also covers the gender dimension, in relation to issues such as employment, income, risk of poverty, household composition and well-being, education, family and care responsibilities, health and work–life balance.
Both the EWCS and EQLS data contribute to the policy debate on reconciliation issues and work–life balance for men and women. The EQLS looks at the difference between men and women in their levels of life satisfaction or happiness. The gendered division of unpaid work, in relation to for example childcare or caring for elderly relatives, is also covered in the EQLS.
Research on patterns of social mobility for men and women across the EU looks at barriers to equal opportunities and policies to promote it. It highlights the increasingly important gendered patterns of social mobility in different countries.
Eurofound cooperates with the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) on gender-related topics. Eurofound is a key data provider for EIGE’s Gender Equality Index and is involved in the working group for this indicator. Following on from a number of collaborations in recent years, other areas for cooperation between the two Agencies in 2025 include research related to the implementation of gender pay transparency measures, gender gaps in unpaid care, individual and social activities, care services, gender-neutral job evaluation and classification systems, working time in the aftermath of the pandemic, wage determinants in the EU, mental health challenges, social implications of the just transition, labour market dynamics, platform work and the Western Balkans.
Gender equality is a core value of the EU, a fundamental right, a critical component of economic growth and a key principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights. The EU has been making progress in the gender equality field over the past decades, albeit at a slow pace. The Gender Equality Index score for the EU in 2024 was 71.0 points out of 100. This is an improvement of 0.8 points since the 2023 edition. As part of the European Commission’s work programme, gender equality remains an important policy priority, with the goal being to roll out the European Gender Equality Strategy. On 7 March 2025, the Commission published a Roadmap for Women’s Rights ahead of International Women’s Day.
On 5 March 2020, the Commission launched the Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025. The Strategy’s main topics are: violence against women; pay transparency and the gender pay gap; gender balance on company boards; and work–life balance. It is also guided by the vision of ‘a Europe where women and men are free to pursue their chosen path in life, where they have equal opportunities to thrive, and where they can equally participate in and lead our European society’. As one of the first deliverables of the Strategy, the Commission presented a proposal for a pay transparency directive on 4 March 2021. The Council adopted the directive on 24 April 2023.
Every year since 2020, the European Parliament holds a European Gender Equality Week, at the initiative of the Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Committee (FEMM). During the week, the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) also publishes the findings of its Gender Equality Index.
Eurofound’s work on gender equality links in with the Commission’s 2024–2029 priority on supporting people, strengthening our societies and our social model. Eurofound has contributed to the EU initiative on work–life balance and on the pay transparency initiative.
Related data and resources on this topic are linked below.
